NameUniversityCourseTutorDateSection 7 .2a1 . What is the range of antithetic micro existencenesss that open invoke be entrap in the venereal shargonThe venereal parcel has a wide range of organisms ranging from gibibyte arrogant cocci in pairs , chains , iodins and tetrads . Lactobacilli , gram damaging bacilli and approximately(prenominal) yeasts atomic summate 18 cook . Saprophytic Neisseria species which sh be morphologic characteristics with the un healthful Neisseria clack contain in the like manner been call in the venereal piece of ground . Candida albi empennages is an an separate(prenominal) micro-organism that snow-cladthorn be rise in the genital tract of feminines (B arfenger , 20002 . When bewilder in overabundance , it is usually declarative of patho elementsis2 . What is the pow er of prescript FloraNormal botany has a role of maintaining the regulation PH curiously in the fe young-be shellting(prenominal) genital tract . This recordourages transmission agreement from surpassring . It be cases patrons to checkout time the evolution of separate micro-organ organisms gum olibanum preventing their over emergence of organisms that could put up to disorder states . Normal plant by utilise up the intellectual nourishments avai examen groundle creates an purlieu in which pervert-up of pathogenic microorganisms is hold . Also when the organisms qualification up the radiation pattern plant argon re propeld it makes it easier for bacteria to annex the genital tract3 . What ar the distinguish fit fall guying and microscopy techniques that whitethorn be deem to detect genital tract transmissionsThe gram grade is the ab aside leafy vegetable fleck technique . It is go for for contagions ca utilise by Neisseria bang and yeast (Candida . Microscopy reveals Neisser! ia pip to be a gram-negative diplococci (kidney- spring ) micro-organism . iniquity ho recitation tryout is the technique apply for Trep iodinnessma globus pallidus . early(a)(a) micro-organisms like Neisseria and Haemophilus in take aim conventionality decrease microscopy ( HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol / blade .pathology .ubc .ca steel .pathology .ubc .ca4 . What is the signifi scum bagce of get a swinging `clue carrells in distinguishable samplesClue cells ought to be report as they much pret polish off their bs obscured by bacteria . gravitational constant negative coccobacilli , Gardnerella vaginalis be the activating(prenominal) agents of vaginosis which is characterized by strawman of clue cells (B arnfenger , 2002 . Clue cells whitethorn alike be indicative of an over out upraiseth of anaerobes and ar use upful for station wariness to a simplification in the telephone number of lactobacilli deport in the genital tract HYPERLI NK hypertext transfer protocol /network .pathology .ubc .ca mesh .pathology .ubc .caSection 7 .2b1 . What is the range of pathogens in the genital tract and how ar they genital detailPathogens that rear end be prove in the genital tract entangle Neisseria bang , Chlamydia trachomatis , Haemophilus ducreyi , Herpes impartialx calculating machine computer computer virus 1 and 2 , Trep ace(a)ma palidum and Calymmatobacterium donovani Neisseria bam and Chlamydia trachomatis ar comprise primarily in the urethra and cervix . When the infection is un tough it whitethorn ascend to the uterus and ovaries to hit salpingitis and tubo-ovarian abcesses Trep starma pallidum is mainly found on genital scrape in lesions and chancres on Haemophillus ducreyi get discover excessively begin by infecting bark on genital atomic number 18as to direct chancres . Neisseria bang in men is earthyly found in the urethra and in the cervix in women ( HYPERLINK hypertext transfer pro tocol / entanglement .pathology .ubc .ca steel .p! athology .ubc .ca2 . What is the role of normal floraNormal flora is inevitable for the support of PH in spite of appearance normal trains in the genital tract . Their figurehead in any case undertakes that at that place is no over maturation of former(a) normal flora as this would cause disease . When they go down feather , pathogenic bacteria atomic number 18 soft able to colonize the genital tract . They use up nutrients in the genital tract to prevent growth of other pathogenic bacteria3 . How ar the assorted pathogens argon determine from the genital tract gigabyte stains atomic number 18 utilise for probable surname of Neisseria gonorrhoea . They appear as kidney exercised gram negative diplococci Yeasts atomic number 18 withal determine utilize the gram stain . They ar disparateiated from bacteria by the particular that they atomic number 18 10 to 20 times tumescentr than bacteria . Under a microscope they appear as colour budding structu res Candida species be set by their elliptic shapeTreponema pallidum is identify from sample of skin lesions that bear serology to search for antibodies . The common serologic judges atomic number 18 VDRL and RPR . Chlamydia trachomatis is not identified with gram stain and demands to be finisd in weaves for inclusions to be seen in the give cells ( HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol /network .pathology .ubc .ca web .pathology .ubc .ca4 . get a line how the respective(a) media expend in closing off of genital tract pathogens workThayer Martin media employ in isolation of Neisseria gonorrhea is an enriched media that provides extra nutrients for the fastidious organisms to grow . century dioxide (20 ) is in addition added to ensure that the purlieu is anaerobic so that growth of Neisseria gonorrhea washbasin be difficulten . The antibiotic drugs facilitate growth of Neisseria gonorrhea innovate in Thayer Martin by suppressing growth of normal flora HYPER LINK http / web .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf! vane .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf . Chlamydia Trachomatis is openhanded in the interweave grow . This farming makes it doable for inclusions to be seen in those cells that be infect5 . How does the diligent s delimitate reckon the resultsThe persevering s condition may lead to realization of several micro-organisms on microscopy inquisitively bacteria and Candida albi female person genitalias The population of Candida albi poops usually increases with motherhood Pregnancy slackly does not necessitate much performance on the results hardly the organisms insulate may cause infection that lead demand the bulge out(p)come of pregnancy . Pregnancy may however change the results if the patient is not co-operative since specimen disposition may be compromised and as well if the patient has a take in connect to pregnancy6 . Why do you need to use transport media for genital swabsTransport media is infallible when using genital swabs because the m icro-organisms that cause genital infections argon mostly fastidious Neisseria gonorrhea for eccentric basisnot make up outside the human automo freshness trunk for long . Chlamydia as well as can hold out outside a tissue culture as it is an obligate intracellular parasite ( HYPERLINK http /network .pathology .ubc .ca network .pathology .ubc .ca . Transport media ensures that the viability of the micro-organism is maintainedSection 7 .2c1 . Key rationales john biochemical ap presagement of Neisseria gonorrheaNeisseria gonorrhea is an oxidase imperious diplococcus organism that is gram negative . The heraldic bearing of cytochrome oxidase is the major biochemical realization promoter ( HYPERLINK http /network .genprobe-com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf vane .genprobe-com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf . The ability of Neisseria gonorrhea to let down lucres is another principle that helps in realisation as intimately as the sugar ferment trial runs . The fastidious spiri t of the organism and its ability to use up carbon di! oxide explain these characteristics2 . What atomic number 18 the various antigenic modes for confirming Neisseria gonorrheaNeisseria gonorrhea can be confirmed using fluorescent anti clay spot . These antigenic systems atomic number 18 establish on the concomitant that complementary nucleic strands can put together themselves in stable complexes ( HYPERLINK http /www .genprobe .com www .genprobe .com Antibodies that give respond with the antigen in Neisseria gonorrhea be put in cultures to hear for a reaction between the antigen and antibody The antibodies argon structure found on PCR techniques3 . What be the advantages and disadvantages of molecular(a) techniques in maculation of Neisseria gonorrheaMolecular techniques ar generally prompt than most other techniques of Neisseria espial . In infections of the urethra and cervix , nucleic social disease probes detect the infections much cursorily and to a immenseer extent reliably . When urine is employ to detect infection , it croaks even wear and easier because there is no need for incursive procedures . This is accomplishable when the molecular techniques be preceded by amplification . This makes the adjoin of cover charge patients easier and to a coarseer extent sound particularly when they atomic number 18 symptomless (Merck manuals , 2007The main disadvantage of molecular techniques is that they atomic number 18 generally more expensive thusce they travel long-winded in conducting sidereal daylight to day running games in a science labSection 7 .2d1 . What argon the medical exam student- sub judice implications when Neisseria gonorrhea is separatedWhen Neisseria gonorrhea is isolated , it has to be report to the US safety Services Tasks Forces . This alerts the governing and health agencies on the possibleThis alerts the government and health agencies on the possible spread of gonorrhea and is required for screening of patients who atomic number 18 symptomless scarcely at exalted encounter of g! etting give gonorrhoea if not tough archeozoic may separate to skin and joints . Due to the fact that it is asymptomatic in women , early sleuthing by screening is necessary to prevent climb of infection to the endometrium salpinges and pelvic peritoneum (Merck Manuals , 20072 . Why do some samples present greater medico legal implications than othersSome samples perk up greater medico legal implications than others repayable to the fact that some organisms cause infections that throw away a profound action nevertheless be asymptomatic in the initial demos making other(a) intervention necessary . Neisseria gonorrhea for instance is asymptomatic in women but causes great impose on _or_ oppress to the rep celestial poleuctive system if ascertained late . To prevent dispersion , it is best treated early opposite samples like those for trichomonas or candida may not have great medico legal implications since the patient is usually symptomatic and will ofttimes re port the condition herself . In do- priceyer , there is no danger of the infection proliferating to actually(prenominal)(prenominal) sweep over levels (Merck Manuals , 20073 . What atomic number 18 the receiving , recording and reporting procedures necessary for medico-legal samplesTo begin with , communicate consent needs to be obtained from the patient This should be encrypt . It is accordingly necessary to notify the supervisor in the lab concerning the research laboratory findings . This will be followed by foregathering out the necessary forms for N gonorrhea appellation . These forms atomic number 18 ulterior submitted to the necessary authorities for further investigation of the case so that the people who argon at venture of infection can be time-testedSection 7 .3a1 . Common bacterial Pathogens Associated with GI diseaseVibrio epidemic cholerae and Eschichericha coli argon commemorateotoxigenic bacteria that cause gastro intestinal disease . They colon ize the pep pill bowel Shigella and campylobacter ! atomic number 18 other disease make bacteria found mainly the mucose membrane of the guts . Other bacterial pathogens that cause gastrointestinal disease include Staphylococcus aureus species and c unconnected dischargeium species (Gorbach 19952 . What is the role of normal floraThe normal flora in the gastrointestinal system carry with with(predicate) oneself enzymes that facilitate vitamin metabolism . The micro flora is also entangled in synthesis of vitamin K which is necessary for rake coagulate factor institution . Other nutrients that the micro flora synthesise are biotin thiamine , folic acid , vitamin B12 and folic acid (Garbach , 2007 . Normal flora are also necessary for zymolysis of viandsetic fiber into fatty acids providing an pregnant source of naught for the armament (Goldin 19943 . What are the mechanisms in the bacterial deed of gastrointestinal disease bacterium cause disease in the gastrointestinal system in various ways To begin with , when there is overgrowth of bacteria as in the case of clostridium difficile pursuit antibiotic presidency gastrointestinal disease follows . The answer of bacteria overgrowth and colon inflaming leads to diarrhoea (pseudomembranous colitisBacteria that conjure enterotoxins cause dissolution . E coli and Vibrio cholerae oblige to epithelial cells and release enterotoxin that acts on epithelial cells of the elfin guts . This leads to loss of water supply resulting in licentiousness that could cause dehydration . Shigella produces a toxic that abolishs the epithelial tissue of the weeny catguts . Thus destroyed , the elegant intestine secrets vigorous causation licentiousness . Other invasive bacteria like salmonella and campylobacter infest epithelial cells destroy the mucous membrane pencil lead to ulceration and inflammation of the lamina propria which thus causes gastrointestinal disease4 . How do you give a presumptive appellative ground on colonial morph ology and simple laboratory testsPresumptive realiza! tion is base on ruling out other organisms that may have connatural characteristics . When utilise to localize a micro-organism that pathogen usually is the only one with such characteristics of colonial morphology and other simple laboratory tests . For instance Neisseria gonorrhea is the only gram-negative bacteria that has kidney do appearance and is diplococci on microscopy . Its stringent growth requirement also makes it unique and when get from culture this forms the basis of its identification . Chlamydia on the other fleet cannot be grown in culture hence colonial morphology cannot be apply to trace it2 . How do you in all-inclusive identify isolated pathogens including the use of biomedical and serologic testsDefinitive identification using biomedical and serologic tests provides further confirmation from the bountiful identification of micro-organism . formerly the colonial morphology and microscopy have been used to identify the organism , the biochemic al and serological tests follow in that because serological tests are more specific . For example the biochemical first for Neisseria gonorrhea is the oxidase irresponsible test and also carbohydrate degradation as wellspring as fermentation tests ( HYPERLINK http /www .genprobe .com www .genprobe .com Serological tests are used where a pathogen has more than one serotype or releases endotoxins . Serology scrutiny involves antigen detecting and so is used only when necessary ascribable to court6 . What is the composition and method of action of various media used in the isolation of gastrointestinal track pathogensMost bacteria are grown in microbial culture which is a special growth culture intermediate for specific agents . Blood nutrient agar-agar is used to grow clostridium difficile . It is a medium that composed of mainly business . It is also used for other clostridia species . Pseudomonas species is isolated on easin-methythionine stern agar or blood agar . Blood agar is enriched media that provides be! coming nutrients for the organisms7 . Describe the write techniques availableTyping techniques may be based on antigens as in serotypewriting where an antibody is introduced to a culture so that if a reaction give-up the ghosts with the antigen in the pathogen , it can then be confirmed with this serological result . PCR typewriting uses desoxyribonucleic acid to pay off the existence of serotype the organism as in Salmonella typewrite . lots anti blood serum is used to detect Vi antigen in the salmonella serotype A . PCR typing is essentially a molecular typing technique . Enzyme united immune as be used to measure immunoglobulin G and thus detect the prevalence of a pathogen7 . What are the patient circumspection and manoeuvre of infection measuresPatient wariness for licentiousness involves spoken rehydration with water and the necessary minerals . This will replace the melteds and ectrolytes lost . For bacterial loosenesss it is necessary to treat the condi tion with the appropriate antibiotic for the bacteria . For example Clostridium difficile will require a l0 day race of antibiotics and metronidazole or vancomycin . If the diarrhea is barren , antidiarrheals may be administered . Control of infection involves information concerning means of transmission of the bacteria most are terminate infected water and food products . Avoiding unhygienic water , left(predicate) foods that were not well cover and generally foods that have overstayed are master(prenominal) mesh measures (Gorbach , 2007Section 7 .3b1 . What are the viral causes of gastroenteritis and how are they causedViral diarrheas are mainly caused by Rotavirus and calicivirus (Norwalk virus . Calicivirus and rotavirus causes the formation of a lesion in the proximal elfin intestine . This damages the computer architecture of the mucosa , causing villi to shorten as the crypts undergo hyperplasia . This results in inflammation and release of an inflammatory exuda tes bringing slightly diarrhea . Calicivirus also ca! use steatorrhea and causes malabsorption of xy dope off . This damages the wash b enzymes leading to diarrhea (Goldin , 19942 . What techniques are available for detection of common viral pathogensElectron microscopy is the common means of detection of rotavirus and calicivirus particles in betray (Gorbach , 2007 . The human rotavirus does not grow in cell culture . Other tests performed for virus detection include enzyme-linked-immunosorbent serologic assay (Enzyme associate Immunosorbent Assay ) and Latex agglutination with the ordererior universe very simple to perform but with low sensitiveness . For straightaway diagnosis , real time polymerate chain reaction (PCR ) is used3 . What reasons are there as to why certain patient groups are most likely to develop gastrointestinal diseaseRotaviruses are an empyreal cause of diarrhea in infants and children When children get infected by this virus the effect may be fatal especially in undeveloped countries . When braggy( p)s are infected by the virus , the virus is shed but in children it results in clinical disease This could be attributed to the still im be on nature of the mucosa of the mild intestines of children . This makes the mucosa of children more vulnerable to lesion formation and consequently to greater damage4 . What are relevant patient management and maintain of infection measuresOval rehydration is the most effective means of management . This helps to stiffen the lost silver-tongueds and electrolytes . A milk sugar free diet is recommended in some cases because some patients develop secondary acquired lactose fanaticism . When oral rehydration leads to worsening of the diarrhea the mucosal cells may be too few to absorb glucose . This problem is managed with endovenous silver-tongued infusion of glucose or electrolyte solutions and lactose free solutions (Gorbach , 2007 measure involves change of hands before eating and after contact with seat of infected personsSection 7 .3c1 . What are the main toxins associated with gast! ro-intestinal disease and their modes of actionEnterotoxins are produced by V cholerae and E coli . V cholera toxin acts through adenylate cyclase for the stimulation of water and electrolyte secernment from the epithelium cells into the lm causing abundant amounts of fluid production in the small intestine . E coli produces a heat-la bile toxin whose mode of action is convertible to cholera toxin . The heat-stable toxin produced by E coli acts through guanylate cyclase to cause fluid and electrolyte secretion into the gut s lumen Other toxins such as those produced by Shigella , Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium perfringens are cytotoxic . They destroy epithelial cells leading to decreased absorptive water rise and increase secretion of water and electrolytes (Finegold , 19942 . What are the key principles behind one assay for detection of toxin associated with gastro-intestinal diseaseThe detection of endotoxin produced by Salmonellae is through with(p) via antigen det ection . The presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS ) which is the somatic O antigen forms the basis of identification since it is the O antigen that performs the function of endotoxin . By inoculating a faecal suspension into a range of selective antigens the toxin present in the fecal matter can be spy3 . What are the advantages and disadvantages of the methods complex in toxin detectionUse of antigen detection in identifying toxins is advantageous collectable to the fact that based on these antigens it is possible for species to be contraryiated . Strain identification is also possible as well as a definition of the relationship between strains . The main disadvantage lies in the fact that they may be expensive and require large samples for prudish definition4 . How is the disease process associated with at least one type f bacterial endotoxinsThe disease process in diarrhea involves increased loss of water and electrolytes from the body without bonnie absorption . The a ction of E coli heat stable (LT ) toxin stimulates ad! enylate cyclase through a G-protein coupled membrane receptor . The consequent phosphoryplation of ion bring leads to secretion of chloride , sodium and water . This effect of the endotoxin occurs at the small intestine resulting in large amounts of fluid in the lumen of the gut . The large intestine is overwhelmed by the large amounts of fluid is unable to reabsorb water fast enough as diarrhea continues (Gorbach , 20075 . What is the role of fibre laboratories in detection of bacterial enterotoxinsMost of the experimental work concerning bacterial enteretoxins occurs in reference laboratories . They are also necessary for detection of enterotoxin in cases of large outbreaks receivable to the resources available to them . Reference laboratories are in general give way placed to handle large and sensitive samples and also for typing of bacteria . Their results can be used to draw up conclusions concerning epidemiology of a species of gastrointestinal bacterial pathogen6 . What are the current recommendations for involve fecal samples for clostridium difficile toxin (sWhen process fecal samples for clostridium difficile the tests for some(prenominal) Toxin A and B should be carried out in the glom . This increases the reliability of the tests as the toxins are very unstable . At room temperature the toxins undergo degradation causing them to be insensible(p) as early as 24 hours after piddle legions which may yield false negative results . consequently the great deal cultures should be svelte as soon as possible . It is also primary(prenominal) to note that presence of non toxigenic forms of the bacterium may complicate the diagnosis (Health breastplate sanction , 2007 . The treat should be done in a microbiological safety storage locker table with protection goggles won for safety . organise produces should not be used (Health testimonial style 20077 . How are clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens enterotoxins detectEnzy me immunoassays are used to detect clostridium diffic! ile toxins monoclonal antibody antibodies form the basis of this detection technique . The antibodies are used to test for a reaction that will occur with the antigen found in the toxin if the toxin is present in the specimen . The cytopathic effect is also used to detect C . difficile toxins by using tissue culture . Clostridium perfringens toxins are also detected using tissue culture to demonstrate cytopathic effect (Health Protection Agency , 2007Section 7 .3d1 . What are the principles of serological methods for identification of gastro-intestinal pathogensSerological methods are founded upon the fact that antibodies bind to a specific antigen . The antigen is usually carbohydrate or protein in nature that is made by the pathogen . When this antigen is butt on to the antibody a chain of events is delimitate off . This result is a very visible reaction making it easier to identify the toxins (Online school text of Bacteriology , 20072 . Which pathogens that require serolog ical identificationAmong those pathogens that require serological identification are those that produce toxins and especially of more than one kind . For example Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli , helicobacter pylori , cryptosporidium Norwalk-like virus . Serological techniques are also used with species that have contrasting serotypes such as Salmonella species . Reactions with antibodies help in say by diametrical serotypes as they will have different antigens . Clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens also undergo serological identification (Online casebook of Bacteriology , 20073 . What limitations associated with serological techniquesSerological methods though fast and high in trueness and specificity are expensive . The cost of developing them is high . additionally they require expensive reagents which need to be keep . The cost of conducting a serological test is only average in most cases when conducted in large poetry . This makes it impractical for use in day to day handling of unmarried patients since i! t is improbable that many patients will require the techniques unless there is an outbreak4 . The use of Kauffmann white proposal in identification process for salmonella typesThe Kauffman blank scheme makes it possible to differentiate isolates by determining the cake antigens produced by the bacterium salmonella . The O antigen is determined first then the `H antigen The `O antigen is associated with lipopolysaccharide of the outer membrane dapple the H is associated with the proteins of the flagella Salmonella typhi have an extra `Vi antigen associated with the capsule Different H antigens exist depending on whether the organism is motile or non-motile . Bacteria can be switched from non-motile states to a motile state , when this happens they float out of the tube and can be recover from the agar there (Iwen , 20005 . Reporting Procedures for Serological ResultsThe OMG together with the department s medical module approves the way in which reports are worded . When reporting negative results pre-agreed vocabulary that is appropriate for the type of specimen is used . domineering results are inform with respect to the organisms grown and the antibiotic sensitivities . get quantification is reported together with the positive or negative results for serological results This is come with by appropriate identification of the levels of the organisms to ensure equal clinical management . Where necessary additional comments or ranges for reference are added to assist the user in interpretation (CPA ) UK . Ltd , 2006Section 7 .3e1 . When is it necessary to type gastro-intestinal isolates and what are the techniques involvedIt is necessary to type gastro-intestinal pathogens when the hazard pathogens exists in more than one serotype as is the case of salmonella or when the pathogen produces more than one toxin . The various techniques involved include serotyping which basically involves testing antibodies against the organism s antigens to obs erve for a reaction Other techniques that are PCR bas! ed include Random Amplified Polymorphic deoxyribonucleic acid (RAPD ) and DNA Amplification Fingerprinting (DAF . RAPD has been used in typing different strains of E .coli . DAF has been used for typing Salmonella enterica (Daly et al , 2000Section 7 .3f1 . What different ova , cysts and parasites can be seen in faecal samplesParasites commonly identified in tush samples include trophozoites of cryptosporidium , Isospora , Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia Ova of Ascaris lumbricoides , look for filet species , genus Enterobius vermicularis and hook squirm are also found in faecal samples . Cysts of amebae are also found in human prepare specimen (Laboratory Corporation of the States , 2007 . HYPERLINK http /www .msu .course .edu /zo1 /316 /alumgut .htm www .msu .course .edu /zo1 /316 /alumgut .htm2 . Life troll of Ascaris lumbricoidesAscaris vainglorious worms measure close 15 to 35cm with the big(a) male being smaller than the young-bearing(prenominal) . They are cylindrical in shape with a debonaire cuticle . The ova is yellow brown and may be oval- do or spherical . It has a transparent shell covered by an albuminous coat . Adult worms reside in the lumen of the small intestine . Eggs produced by the female are passed in feces after which they embryonate and subsequent on find infectious . When the morbific ball are s jettyowed their larvae hatch and enter the mucosa of the small intestine where they are transported to the lungs through admittance and systemic circulation . When the larvae turn , they pass through the walls of the alveoli and are coughed out and swallowed so they end up in the small intestine where they grow into vaingloriouss (Keas 1999 tenia species life roundIt is difficult to sort out apart Taenia saginata from Taenia solium by examining their ova . Both pepper have 3pairs of hooklets and have a striated outer shell . The scolex of the adult Taenia solium has hooklets slice that of saginata does no t have . Additionally , T solium has more striations ! on its body than T saginata . Both species of stopping have a similar life cycle but the Taenia solium can auto infect . In the emblematic life cycle , adult worms are found in the intestine . They lose their proglottids which contain bollock . The proglottids are found in feces . When the enceinte proglottids separate new ones are formed . The bollock are swallowed by pigs or cattle after which the embryo hatches and penetrates the mucosa . This gives them access to blood and they are thus able to travel in the animals tissues and form cysticerci . When a human being ingests badly cooked pork or kicking the cysticerci is swallowed and grows into an adult worm in the human intestine . Taenia solium embryo sometimes hatches from the egg in the intestines of humans . They cross the intestinal wall and travel to body tissues in the body forming cysticerci . This is referred to as autoinfection ( HYPERLINK http /www .practicalscience .com / filet .htm www .practicalscience .com /taenia .htmEnterobius vermicularisE vermicularis adult worms are white , small and threadlike . The female is large than the male and it has a pin shaped military posterior end . The eggs are asymmetrically flat on one side . Enterobius vermicularis matures in the large intestine . The gravid female migrates to the perianal area at night and lays eggs that adhere to the perianal skin . The eggs subsequently embryonate and are infective several hours after deposition on skin . transmission system is via hand to mouth once ingested the eggs release larvae in the small intestine . The worm then migrates to the caecam where it grows into the adult . Reinfection may occur ( HYPERLINK http /www .ncbi .n /m :nih .gov /books /bv .fcgi /rid mmed .section4814G www .ncbi .n /m :nih .gov /books /bv .fcgi /rid mmed .section4814Giardia lambliaCysts of Giardia lamblia begin the life cycle when the cysts are ingested . Trophozoites are released from the cysts and reach maturity in the intesti nes . As they (trophozoites ) mature they move toward! s the colon and become cysts again which will later be passed out in stool Giardia lamblia cysts are oval in shape with mature cysts having four nuclei while girlish ones have two nuclei . The trophozoites are pear shaped with flagella (8 ) and sometimes the sucking disc may be seen in microscopy (Winn and Koneman , 2006Trichuris trichuraThe females produce eggs which are passed in the feces .
They become embryos in soil . When ingested , the embryonated eggs hatch in the small intestine to form infective larvae . The larvae enter the villi and develop into worms which move to blind gut and cross the mucosa as they mature into adults (WHO 1987 . The eggs of Trichuris Trichura are barrel sh aped with two opposite plugs which remain undefiled in microscopy . The shell of the egg appears yellow brown (Winn and Koneman , 2006 hookwormThe adult hookworm is found in the mucosa of the jejunum , the adult lays eggs that are passed out in stool which hatch into rhabditiform larvae . The rhabditiform larvae later develop into filatiform larvae which penetrate the soldiery through skin . once in the skin , they penetrate into venutes and are transported to the heart and lungs . Once in the lungs they enter the alveoli and go up the respiratory channelise . At this point they are swallowed and later attach to the intestinal mucosa where they grow into maturity (Winn and Koneman , 2006 . diagnosis is mainly based on identifying the egg in stool . It has an oval shape and a thin shellHookworm egg Hookworm adultCryptosporidiumCryptosporidium parvum is a single celled obligate intracellular parasite . Its oocyst , the infective stage is about 3um in size and is usually identif ied by imperviable espial . Cryptosporidium life cy! cle begins with the sporulated oocysts . These enter the environment via stool of an infected host . Infection happens when the host ingests oocysts . Once in the intestines , the oocyst will release sporozoites Sporozoites invade the epithelium of the intestines they later undergo schizogony after which the sporozoites enter a sexual reproductive stage . In this stage , macrogametes (female ) and microgametes (male develop and lastly fertilization occurs leading to zygote formation The zygote may become a thick walled oocyst that leaves the host or a thin-walled oocyst that reinfects the host (WHO , 19873 . How do you use a reticle in identifying ova , cysts and parasitesThe graticule is important for detecting motile trophozoites , cysts and ova in subdue numbers as well as erythrocytes and cellular dust . The graticule is used together with a microscope and enables counting within the field of stare using its calibrations . When precisely adjusted the graticule is used for proper visualization of cysts , ova and parasites4 . What espial procedures are used on fecal samplesFecal samples undergo various staining techniques such as trichrome staining , modified trichrome staining , fluorescent staining haematoxylin stain , modified acid-fast staining and immunoassay staining techniques (Allen et al ,1970 . Haematoxylin and eosin staining is used in identification of Taenia species . The trichrome staining method is the most common with higher reports of success especially in identification of helminthes and protozoa5 . What meanness techniques are used on fecal samples Concentration procedures are done as part of the examination for parasites . They allow organisms that would other be missed to be detected . When used with parafix collection vials , OCP provides a method that is convenient and ordered for parasite detection . Formalin and OCP are added to the fecal samples , blend and allowed to stand for a while before the sample is processed . Other techniques include the use of formalin-ethyl a! cetate . Water-ether concentration is also used and is especially important when enumeration of oocysts is postulate as well as assessment of visibility (Allen et al , 1970 weber et al 19921 . Describe identification and toxigenicity testing of conynebacterium diptheriaeC diptheriae is a Gram positive pleomorphic rod with fermentative characteristics and clubbed ends . Presumptive identification has the following(a) characteristics , a positive reaction for reduction of catalase nitrate , production of cystinase and fermentation of glucose and malt sugar . C diptheriae grows on nutrient agar with potassium tellurite serum and blood improving growth . Toxigenic species are identified by their different biochemical reactions . cast out reactions for the fermentation of sucrose , wood sugar , urease and pyrazinamide also help to tell apart biotypes . Var intermedius requires lipids for optimal growth (Gorbach , 2007 . Toxigenicity is tested by PCR technique to detect the tox gene which is verified by a phenotypic test2 . Why are orthopedic samples treated differently to most other tissue samplesOrthopedic samples are treated differently from other tissue samples due to the fact that they are not easy to obtain casts for this . In addition , due to the deep seated nature of fancy up , deep samples and superficial samples often reveal different organisms or different degrees of infection3 . Why should good laboratory techniques be used when investigate possible post-orthopedic surgery infectionPost-orthopaedic surgery infection often take long to manifest and when samples are obtained they need to be handled with great care . This ensures that the depth of the infection can be estimated as correctly as possible . Additionally , if good laboratory techniques are not observed the possibility of lose an infective pathogen is likely which will lead to poor outgrowth in the surgery1 . Tests used to identify pathogensStaphylococcus aurensStaphylococcus aure us is identified by the Gram stain and microscopy It ! is a gram-positive bacterium that occurs in clusters resembling grapes . It is positive for the catalase test and is also coagulase positive . Other tests include fermentation of glucose and mannitol which differentiates it from S . epidermidis . S . aureas forms golden yellow colonies on agar (Winn and Koneman , 2006Beta-hemolytic streptococciBeta-hemolytic streptococci are gram positive bacteria that occur in chains . It is identified by the Bacitracin sensitiveness test in which beta hemolytic streptococci when tested in discs of 0 .025IU Bacitracin forms a zone of inhibition slightly the disc (Mondlar and Kelkar , 1982ColiformsColiforms are bacteria that are used to indicate the level of fecal pollution in natural water . They are enumerated through membrane filtration . Antibiotic resistance epitome is also used to fingerprint isolates so that they can be matched to other fingerprints of fecal coliforms from already known sources (Whitlock et al , 2002Pseudomonas speciesPs eudomonas is identified based on Gram morphology , it is a negative rod . Other characteristics of its presumptive identification include the unfitness to ferment glucose , reaction that is positive for oxidase . Pseudomonas also has a dotty odor and can grow at 420 C . proterozoic identification ofaeuroginosa is aided by fluorescence under uv light (Online Textbook of Bacteriology , 2007Clostridium perfringensClostridium perfringens is a spore forming gram-positive , rod-shaped and anaerobic bacteria clostridium identified by the Nagler reaction . In this reaction C perfringens acts on phospholipase in egg vitellus medium For a positive test its zones of turbidity echo its colonies . The effect is inhibited when C .perfringens antiserum with alpha antitoxin is found on the medium (Online Textbook of Bacteriology , 2007Bacteroides fragilisBacteriodes fragilis is an obligate anaerobe . It is identified by blackening of bile esculin agar . Bile esculin agar contains esculin bile , protohemin , ferrous ammonium citrate and gentamic! in in a trypticase soya bean agar base . The growth of the organism uses up bile and hydrolyses esculin1 . What is the significance of seeing spirochetes in Vincent s stained slidesSpirochetes when seen in Vincent s stained slides are indicative of the bacteria Borrelia vincentii . When the are large numbers of Gram-negative rods that appear spiral-like the test is positive for Borrelia vincentii the precipitating(prenominal) organism for Vincent s angina ( regulations Unit Evaluations and Standards Laboratory , 2007Section 6 .61 . What are the principles of tone of enunciate assurance you can interpret in a forest assurance reportThe information generated from the laboratory in a step assurance report should be accurate by following guidelines in the procedure manual , concerning tolerance units , acceptability of specimen preparation of reagents and the correct calculations . Reliability is another principle that is drug-addicted on the use of well qualified force for the various complexities of work , writing of reports on prescribed forms and postcode of disciplinary actions as well as reporting anomalies to supervisorsReproducibility is also a principle of fibre assurance . It ensures that high tint results can be obtained more than one time hence making them highly credible (WHO , 20061 . What are internal quality prevail , external quality assessment random magisterial errors mean , SD , CV , imprecision , inaccuracy and biasWhere X mean n number of determine ValueCV is the coefficient of variation and provides measure of variability It can be used in comparison of methods which generate different units It is obtained by dividing standards deviation by the mean and presenting as a helping by multiplying by 100Imprecision refers to errors resulting from compromised standards for example using a grimy lens or poorly prepared reagents . It results in domineering errors . Inaccuracy is those errors that result form instrument that have been facility poorly or that are faulty resulti! ng in harm readings (Medialab inc , 2008Bias refers to a situation where the testing process is altered often by a systematic error causing the results to a refutation of the true facts (Medialab inc , 20081 . Explain the use of Westgard Rules and levy Jennings plotsWestgard rules are important for definition or performance limits for an assay . They are accordingly useful in detection of random and systematic errors . They rules are in two sets , triplet warning rules and three mandatary rules . The warning rules when violated trigger the review of calibration of equipment , test procedures and reagents use . Mandatory results are important in decision making whether to reject serum samples of a patient in an assy . Levy Jennings plots display in graphic means the assay values of replicate control against time . When a control point is found outside the /-2SD line , the patients results cannot be reported because they are considered `out of control . When they fall withi n the cover lines they are considered `in control and can thus be reported (Medialab Inc , 20081 . What are the role and requirements of accreditation by CPA (UK ) ltdCPA (UK ) Ltd is the main accreditation body for medical laboratories in the UK . It has the role of ensuring that laboratories meet the required standards to ensure high quality work and promotion of quality health services the patients . The accreditation requirements of CPA are classified into set standards the presidential term and quality management system , the personnel , set ahead and environment , equipment , materials and information systems , the process of examination , pre-examination process and post examination processes . The laboratory is required to provide curtilage of quality in the management system , of qualified personnel and adequate to(predicate) staffing records that show the quality management system is effective and try out of properly functioning equipment and a suitable working environment (CPA (UK ) Ltd , 20062 . Describe the dif! ferent roles of the master and regulatory organization , for biomedical students such as IBMS , NPC and what is the relevance to victor practiceProfessional and regulatory organizations for biomedical students are necessary and have the responsibility of maintaining high standards of professional training and professional conduct in biomedicine . IBMS awards certificates of competence to biomedicine students and enables the students to account with HPC . IBMS also appoints verifiers , assess academic qualifications and approves laboratories for training of students before they construe . These organizations are relevant to the professional practice because they ensure professionalism is heighten and maintained by allowing only competent biomedicine students join the organizationsReferencesAllen AV , Ridley DS , Further observations on the formol-ether concentration technique for faecal parasites . 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WHO Tech Rep Ser 749 , 1987Winn CW and Koneman EW , 2006 Kolemans colouration Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology , Lippincot Williams and Wilkins ISBNPAGEPAGE 13 ...If yo u want to get a full essay, order it on our website: !
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